PREFACE

Canada is a country of diverse and varied racial and ethnocultural people. Earlier, the  countries of Europe were the traditional source of immigrants in Canada. But in recent times, an increased number of immigrants are coming to Canada from sources other than European countries. The continent of Africa is one of the sources of recent immigrants to Canada.

Apart from statistical documentation by Statistics Canada, Canada Employment and Immigration, and Census Canada, there is an apparent void in the documentation of the background experiences, problems, skills and adaptation processes of the contemporary African immigrants to Canada, particularly Manitoba. This profile has tried to fill that void. It is hoped that Canadians and the institutions of government will now have a better knowledge and understanding of the people, successes and problems of the African community in Manitoba.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In order to appreciate the profile of the African community in Manitoba, a brief historical overview of the continent from which Africans immigrated to Manitoba, Canada is needed.

THE LAND

The primary fact about Africa is that it is not a country, it is a continent. Many Canadians tend to regard or relate to Africans as people from one country. Africa is known as the "birth place of the human race." According to anthropologists, archaeologists and historians, the oldest evidence that supports the existence of human like creatures and people on earth came from bone and fossil materials discovered in parts of eastern and southern Africa. It is from this evidence that most scientists reached the conclusion that the cradle of mankind is in parts of eastern Africa, and that its origin dates back to two and half million years ago.

Africa is the second largest continent in size after Asia, and the third largest in population next to Asia and Europe. Africa covers almost one fifth of the world's land mass and is home to about eight of the world's population.

The continent contains fifty-one independent countries and several other political units such as the Canary Islands, Madeira Islands, Reunion, Western Sahara, etc. Namibia (former southwest Africa) is the most recent independent African country.

The countries that make up the African continent vary in size and population. Sudan is the largest country, and the Island of Seychelles is the smallest. Nigeria is the most heavily populated African country, its estimated population is over 115 million people. Most other countries in Africa have populations under 5 million each.

The World Book Encyclopaedia described Africa as "a land of striking contrasts and great natural wonders."3 It contains vast areas of tropical rain forests, great tree tops and vegetation that shape into a "thick green canopy," the world's largest desert – the Sahara, the world's longest river - the Nile, and a great variety of animals and plants, some of which are native only to Africa. 

THE PEOPLES OF AFRICA

The population of Africa is over 700 million. The variety of people that inhabit Africa reflect the nature of the continent. Africans belong to a variety of racial, ethnic, language and religious groups.

RACIAL GROUP

There are four main geographical racial groups in Africa, namely, (1) African geographical race, (2) the European geographical race, (3) the Asian geographical race, and (4) the Indian geographical race.

In the first group are Black Africans who are native to the African continent. They are greater in population than the other geographical racial groups combined, and account for over "75 percent of the continents total population." The tallest and shortest people in the world belong to this race. They are the Nilotes who are as tall as 7 feet (210 centimetres) and the so- called Pygmies whose height range from 4 feet to 4 feet 8 inches (120 – 142 centimetres).

The second geographical race are the Europeans who in the 1600's migrated and settled in parts of Africa. There are at present about 4 to 5 million European Africans whose ancestral origins are British, Dutch, French or Portuguese. Most of them live in South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe.

The third geographical race are the Asians whose ancestors migrated to the African island of Madagascar from Indonesia about 2,000 years ago. Their population is about 21/2 million. The fourth geographical race are Indians whose ancestors came to Africa in the 1800's as indentured British subjects. There are about one million of them in the southern and eastern parts of Africa.

There is actually a fifth racial group but scientists seem to disagree on their classification. They are the Arabs and Berbers of North Africa. They constitute the major ethnic groups in the northern part of Africa. There are about 80 million Arabs inhabiting the countries of Egypt, Libya and northern Sudan, and 20 million Berbers who live in Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. The dominant geographical race, the Black Africans occupy mostly south of the Sahara, and consists of over 800 ethnic groups amongst them.

WAYS OF LIFE

RURAL LIFE

A greater majority of the people in Africa, especially Africa south of the Sahara live in rural areas (estimated figure is 65%). The structure of rural housing varies from country to country and community to community according to the climate, lifestyle and customs. Most houses are built of sun dried mud with roofs of thatches or straw, burnt brick and concrete blocks with sheet metal/zinc roofs.

CITY LIFE

About 35% of the people in Africa live in cities. And city life styles vary widely from country to country, region to region and metropolis to metropolis. In most cities the architectural patterns reflect both African and European modern styles. Most people in the cities enjoy a higher standard of living as there are better opportunities for well-paying jobs in government, business, industry and public schools.

People who are wealthy and can afford to live in luxury apartments/flats or privately owned modern houses. A good number of cities in Africa, (again, this varies from country to country), have serious problems in providing sufficient housing and efficient public transportation systems. There are also serious water supply problems, sewerage and constant power failures. Because of the sharp increase in the number of rural people migrating to the cities, unemployment has also become a major headache.

ECONOMY

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of most African countries. In spite of the abundant untilled arable land, there have been persistent shortages of food and raw materials with declining agricultural exports. Nevertheless, African countries still lead the world in the production and export of cash crops like groundnut (peanut), palm oil and kernels, cocoa beans, cassava, cashews, vanilla beans, cloves and yams.

Other major products are coffee, tea, cotton, bananas, rubber, sugar and sisal. Livestock is also important branch of agriculture. African countries produce two-thirds of the world's camels, almost a third of its goats, and about seventh of its cattle and sheep.

In most countries of Africa, land is collectively owned, and small portions are parcelled to individual members of the community for their own use. This is why over half of the arable land in most areas is cultivated mainly for subsistence agriculture. On the whole, agricultural production in Africa is very low. A lot of factors are responsible for the low productivity of food. Some examples are lack of modern tools and equipment, and use of inefficient farming methods. In some areas, most of the soil is poor, and heavy rains in other parts wash away precious top soil. Also, periodic droughts and floods destroy crops and reduce their yields.

MINERALS & MINING

Africa has an abundance of mineral wealth. The industries of the Western world depend heavily on a wide range of strategic minerals obtained from Africa. Very little of Africa's great mineral wealth goes to local industrialization. Africa's reserve of the world's important mineral wealth is enormous. "Africa has 90% of the world's cobalt, 80% of the world's reserves of chrome, more than 50% of the reserves of gold, nearly half of the planet's reserves of platinum," and nearly all of the world's reserves of industrial diamonds outside the former communist sphere of influence. Africa has a lot more than the above strategic industrial minerals. The importance of gold in the international monetary system cannot be over emphasized. If African countries were to withhold their supply of gold, the world's exchange system would grind to a halt.

Africa's fuel mineral is also enormous. It has a third of the world's reserves of uranium, leads the world in the production of copper, phosphates, and radium. The continent's share of natural gas is growing fast, iron ore and tin are also produced in commercial quantities. Four African countries, Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, and Gabon are members of the OPEC. South Africa is the world's largest producer of gem diamonds. In terms of other minerals, Africa has 80% of the world's tantalum, its share of "precious stones are diverse, ranging from sapphires to topaz, from malachite to opal, from rubies to tanzanite." And others which cannot be listed here because of the scope of this project. The Western world is prime beneficiary of Africa's great mineral wealth.

Mining provides about half the total value of Africa's exports, and it is dominated by the West's multi national corporations. The reason for this is because mining is capital and skill intensive. And in the absence of adequate local technological and managerial skills mining in Africa continues to be the preserve of the Westerners. Today, if Africa's mineral and mining resources were to be denied the world, the industries of the Western world would virtually collapse.

MANUFACTURING

This aspect of Africa's economy is not very well developed. In colonial times, emphasis was placed in the production of agricultural and mineral raw materials for industries in the West. Today, new African nations that have emerged from the yoke of colonialism still cannot afford to build expensive modern industries. And in places where attempts have been made, American and European industries have tried to discourage industrial growth in Africa.

In spite of the above, a lot of African countries have developed small industries that produce mainly consumer goods such as canned foods, cigarettes, beer, wine, hot drinks, furniture, shoes, soap, toiletries, and soft drinks. There are also factories that produce textiles and automobile parts. The most industrialized economy in Africa is South Africa. Other important and leading industrial economies of Africa are Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria and Morocco.

FORESTRY & FISHING

Africa has vast quantity of the world's forests. But only a small portion of it is used for lumbering, timber, plywood, and paper products. Africa's most valuable trees include such hardwoods as African walnut, mahogany, ebony, redwood, obéché, and iroko. Soft woods include eucalyptus, satinwood and okoumé. These African countries have an active forest industry; Nigeria, Congo, Cameroon, Ghana, Gabon, Ivory Coast and Zaire. The Fishing industry is reasonably well developed, and much of it is done along the sea coasts. Fishing provides much of the needed protein diet food in many African countries. The export part of the fishing industry is mostly in the form of fish oil and fish food.

TRANSPORTATION

A well developed transportation system is a prerequisite for a prosperous economy. Most African countries don't have good roads. Africa has more than 8,000,000 miles (1,300,000 kilometres) of roads but only a small portion of them are paved and motorable all year round. In many areas, roads became impassable when the rainy season comes. In many parts of Africa, cars, buses and trucks are the means of transporting people, goods and services from city to city, town to town and village to village. Many people in the villages and cities also prefer to walk or ride bicycles. In other parts, north of the Sahara, donkeys and camels are used on a regular basis to transport goods and people. The railway system is very much developed in many parts of Africa. There are about 59,000 miles (95,000 kilometres) of railroad tracks in Africa. In African countries like Nigeria, railroads are falling into disuse because land transportation appears to be faster and more efficient.

COMMUNICATION

Most African cities have well developed and efficient communication services. The same cannot be said for the rural areas. There are lots of locally published newspapers and magazines. And large quantities of them are also supplied to major cities in Africa from Europe and the United States of America. Many African countries provide television services and most of them are state owned. Few Africans own TV sets, and those who own one are mostly in the cities. For the rural areas, radio appears to be the chief means of mass communication. While about 30 African countries provide TV services, every African country has a radio station. Even the remotest parts of Africa have radios and most people listen to news programs and world events. Telephone service in Africa is not as common as it is in the Western countries. The supply of telephone service is limited to the cities and major towns. African countries such as Nigeria, Egypt and South Africa have most of the telephones in Africa. One remarkable fact is that telephone service between Europe, North American and Africa is efficient and more accessible than between African countries or within African cities.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

International trade plays a major role in the economy of African countries. Africa exports about one quarter of its total production, and its chief trading partners are Europe, North America and Japan. Ironically, very few African countries trade with one another. Perhaps, this is because the economy of all African countries is tied to the group of seven industrially developed nations. The major imports to Africa are food, machinery, finished products of all kinds and textiles.

Africa's major exports are petroleum, gold, gem diamonds, copper, uranium, coffee, cotton and cocoa. The economy of some African countries is tied to one major export. For instance, Nigeria and Libya produce mainly petroleum, Ghana is dependent on cocoa, Gambia on peanuts and Zambia on copper. This kind of situation renders these African countries helpless when there is a sudden change in world market prices. And it makes long term economic and development planning difficult. African countries should join hands and be very active in international efforts to control price fluctuations and stabilize trade terms. Nigeria, Libya, Gabon and Algeria are members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – an association of oil-producing countries that try to control the world market price of oil.

There is a lot more that should be written on all the issues reviewed in this historical overview, after all, Africa is a continent and not a country. But the scope of this project necessitates limiting the extent and depth of coverage of the issues presented. It is against this background that the people of the African community in Manitoba is presented.

SOCIAL PROFILE

AFRICANS IN MANITOBA

The migration of Africans to Canada has a beginning that goes back many generations. Africans have lived in Canada since the 1600's. The earliest Africans that migrated to Canada did not come directly from continental Africa. They were imported from the islands of the West Indies into then New France (Quebec) and Nova Scotia. Notable among them were the "Maroons: who were settled in Halifax in 1796. The term "Maroon" was used by the Europeans to describe run-away African captives who escaped from slavery and established their own communities.

By the next century more Africans migrated to Canada from the U.S.A. and West Indies. Most of the immigrants from the U.S.A. were enslaved Africans who were trying to escape from the bondage of slavery (see The History of the Underground Railroad) and the Black Loyalists (Africans who had fought on the side of the British against the colonies) who were promised freedom and settlement in British North America at the end of the war. The Africans from the West Indies who migrated to Canada came mainly as British subjects. A lot has been written on these early Africans to Canada. So we are not going to rehearse that history in this study. The focus, therefore, is contemporary African migration to Canada, and Manitoba, in particular. That is, an account of Africans who have come to Manitoba since the 1900's, especially, beginning in the 1940's.

Africans have lived in Manitoba as long as many other racial groups in the province. But it was not until the end of the Second World War that Africans began coming to Manitoba in significant numbers. The African community in Manitoba has grown appreciably. They have built and grown with the province, yet no one knows exactly how many Africans live in Manitoba. What is more, there is no documentation or profile of the composition, problems, needs, attitude and interaction pattern of the African community in Manitoba. Yet their struggle and effort to become part and parcel of Manitoba's cultural mosaic equals that of other immigrants. This study attempts to fill that information void. The 1981 census recorded 1,590 Manitobans who listed as their ethnic origin African, 1,395 of them were in Winnipeg. These figures cannot be accurate. The 1991 census contains no accurate counts either as it has no figures for the number of people whose ethnic origin is listed as African.

WHO ARE THE AFRICANS?

There are Africans in the various walks of life in Manitoba. There are those in full employment, half employment, fully utilized, under-utilized, in government employment, in the private sector employment, and on the unemployment line. They are doctors, lawyers, elementary/secondary school teachers and university professors, research scientists, health care and social service workers, basket ball players, labourers, and students. Others own small businesses and some work in factories. They live in all parts of Manitoba, although their concentration is in Winnipeg.

Because of physical identification with Black people from the West Indies and the U.S.A., Africans have often been assumed to be members of these groups by white Manitobans. It should be recognized that Africans are a separate community even though they are categorized in the nomenclature known as Black Manitobans. Even the African community in Manitoba is as diversified and multicultural as the province itself.

WHERE DID THEY COME FROM?

African Manitobans are from almost every part of Africa. Most of them came in the 1940's to early 1980's as students from the West African countries of Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone and East African countries that are members of the Commonwealth and speak the English language, like Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. There are also those who migrated in the 1970's from the various parts of Europe as professionals, and those who came as refugees and political exiles from other parts of Africa beginning in the 1970's to the present. So, the migration of Africans to Manitoba as presented in this study falls into three categories.

(a) THE STUDENT GROUP

This is the largest group of African immigrants in Manitoba. Most of them began coming to Canada in the 1940's shortly after the Second World War. As was stated earlier, they came mostly from the West African countries of Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone and East African countries like Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda which are members of the British Commonwealth. However, the latest information and figures from the International Centre at the University of Manitoba indicate a more diversified student population from all over Africa.

It was stated earlier that contemporary African migration to Canada started in the 1940's shortly after the Second World War. During that war, Britain had promised its colonized African countries political independence following a successful conclusion of the war. And shortly after the war, African's demand for political independence intensified. The Africans who led the movement for political independence were returning soldiers who had fought side by side with the British and French, and members of the elite and intelligentsia class who had acquired Western education.

The first colonized African nation south of the Sahara to gain political independence was Ghana in 1957. By 1960, Nigeria became politically independent, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda followed in 1962 and 1963. By the mid 1960's, most colonized African countries had become politically independent and those not yet independent were soon to become politically free. It was during this time that the African student class began migrating to Canada in great numbers. What were the reasons?

Studies have been done that reveal a positive relationship between education and economic growth, either from a private returns growth or from a social one. Some economists argue that it is the human resources of a nation that ultimately determine the character and pace of its economic and social development. The colonial governments in Africa harnessed education to their imperialist ambitions by emphasizing the importance of skills development. At independence, African political leaders and governments acted in terms of human capital development through investments in education. It was obvious that the state had to invest in its people to provide a better and quality labour. As a result, post independence development plans gave high priority to human capital development, and scholarships and bursaries were awarded to deserving men and women to pursue higher education. There were not enough spaces in the local institutions of higher learning to accommodate students. Going abroad for further studies was an option and many students went, and Canada was one of the countries of choice.

For individuals, economic and social mobility were the primary motivations for migration to Canada for further studies. The elite and intelligentsia class took over control of the political/ economic and bureaucratic system at independence. And anyone aspiring to become a member of this privileged group had to have a solid education. Also, families, and communities realized that as members of a newly politically independent nation or members of a government in waiting, they must invest in their sons and daughters to receive higher private returns and remuneration and thereby contribute to the productive and economic growth of the society using the skills that have been acquired. Again, some of the men and women chose to come to Canada.

It must be mentioned that some of the Africans who are now settled in Manitoba, first lived in other parts of Canada when they arrived. Manitoba has not always been the first choice of destination. Many of the Africans who came to Manitoba as students aspired to acquire the necessary skills, education, knowledge, training and expertise to enable them to return to Africa and establish a better life at home. Indeed, this was the case for most of the Africans till the middle of the 1980's. It was hard to find African students committed at the time of their arrival to remain permanently in Canada. The minority that remained permanently in Canada were those that had gotten married to Canadians and decided to stay out of loyalty and dedication to their new family. Even for this group, home was always in Africa. If all or most of the African students who came to Canada between the 1940's and early 1980's had remained permanently, the population of Africans in Manitoba today would be in the tens of thousands.

The decision to have permanent settlements in Manitoba started in the later part of the 1980's for most of the African students. It was this time that the economic depression/recession that peaked in 1990-93 started. The economy of most African countries was taking a turn for the worse. Many parents and family members who earlier had urged their sons and daughters to hurry home after their studies became cautious and advised a wait and see posture. Those who had not acquired permanent resident status began applying for it, those who had become permanent residents and didn't want to become Canadian citizens decided to acquire it, and those who had become Canadian citizens and were holding employment became more appreciative of their situation. Some who had gone back to Africa following successful completion of their studies in Manitoba began returning to Canada. Together with the group that had earlier committed themselves to remaining permanently in Canada, the African community in Manitoba developed.

(b) THE PROFESSIONAL GROUP

Before the 1960's, Canada's immigration policy was restricted and in favour of whites. In fact, Canada and Australia were the only Commonwealth countries whose immigration policies advocated whites only. In the early 1960's, pressure began to mount for immigration reforms. Following the introduction of the Charter of Human Rights, the U.N. began to put pressure on Canada to open wider its immigration door to people of all races without discrimination. The newly independent African governments and other Third World leaders criticized racial restriction at Commonwealth meetings, and Canada acknowledged the need for changes in its immigration policy. During this period, Prime Minister John Diefenbaker had declared that Canada rejected discrimination based on race, national origin, colour, religion or sex. He introduced in the Parliament a Bill of Rights which was passed in 1960. This Bill made changes in the immigration policy inevitable, and in 1962, revised immigration regulations were released. Section 31 of the new immigration regulations emphasized education, training, and skills as the major factors for admission into Canada. What this meant was that intended immigrants who meet the above criteria would be considered on their own merit without regard to racial origin.

Another contributing factor to the change in Canada's immigration regulation in the 1960's was the demand by employers for more skilled immigrants, and politicians who represented ridings where large ethnic voters were concerned with discriminatory immigration regulations. Following the changes in immigration regulations, skilled and professional people from the Commonwealth countries of Africa, India, Hong Kong and West Indies became eligible to migrate, and most who applied to come to Canada had better skills than the usual applicants from traditional European sources.

In 1966, greater changes were recommended in a government White Paper which called for an increased immigration within the non-discriminatory parameters of 1962. The amended immigration regulations became effective in 1967 and introduced a "point system" which approximated the now skill-oriented immigration policies to specific value in the various criteria such as education, age, health, language, and work prospects.

The changes in immigration regulations benefited many young, skilled and educated Africans who had studied and acquired various expertise in Europe and did not wish to return to their homes in Africa immediately. Many migrated to Canada and a good number of them ended up in Manitoba. It is a shared human characteristic to always want a better life. Economic and social advancement were motivating factors in the decision of these Africans to migrate to Canada. Most arrived with the expectation that they will accumulate wealth within a reasonable short time, return to their homes in Africa with their acquisitions and establish a comfortable life. In the pattern of the student group and characteristic of the African attachment to their ancestral homes, only very few of them are committed at the time of their arrival to make Canada their permanent home.

The Canada which those African professionals came to is friendlier and more welcoming than the earlier generation. The idea that immigrants who are not from Europe or of European stock are not knowledgeable and skilled enough to be accepted into Canada was giving way to acceptance based on one's own merit and equal status. In addition, the 1960's and 1970's, during which most of the African professionals migrated, the Canadian economy was in peak and in need of the qualities possessed by the Africans. But, despite the improvement in attitude and a booming economy, most Africans have been disappointed in their dreams. The exception has been medical doctors from Western European universities, particularly Great Britain. Almost all have suffered from non-recognition of certificates and qualifications. Most have had to accept jobs where their skills and knowledge are not fully utilized. Trained engineers have had to work as technicians, a good number of them had to go back to school to improve upon their skills, and those who seem to have found a niche in their professions are put in dead-end positions. See the section on unfulfilled expectations for more on this issue.

(c) THE REFUGEE AND EXILE GROUP

The changes in the immigration regulations of the 1960's provided for the acceptance and admission of political refugees and persecuted exiles into Canada. This class of immigrants have come from all over Africa where civil wars, wars of political independence and political persecutions have occurred, particularly, since the 1960's. Most of the refugees are from Ethiopia – especially from the region of Eritrea – where the people have fought for a separate country and political independence since 1962; Somalia, where warlords and clans are fighting each other; Sudan, where the Christian south is fighting to be free from northern Muslim domination; Uganda, where civil war has created a refugee problem; and Rhuwanda, where ethnic/tribal wars have forced people to flee their homes. The political exiles are people who have fled persecution in former Southern Rhodesia now Zimbabwe, South Africa, former South West Africa now Namibia, Angola and Mozambique, former Portuguese colonies in Africa, and Malawi.

Together these three groups (the student, professional, refugee and exile groups) constitute the contemporary African community in Manitoba. Within this generalized profile of the African immigrants to Manitoba is remarkable diversity in terms that Africa is a continent, and Africans came from different countries, each of which has within its territories, varied and unique cultural characteristics.

ORGANIZATIONS

It was stated in the previous section that students were the earliest group of contemporary Africans to come to Manitoba in recent times. This was in the 1960's. Then, there was no African core community in Manitoba with developed social/cultural organizations working to find solutions to some of their problems. However, the students formed the African Students Association – a continental organization whose membership was open to all African students studying at the University of Manitoba. In addition, there were the Nigerian Students Association, and Ghana Students Association – they are national organizations whose membership were mostly students from these countries. All three were the first formal African organizations in Manitoba. Their centre of activities was mainly the campus of the University of Manitoba. The other organization that was founded during this period of the 1960's is the Afro-Caribbean Association of Manitoba Inc. (ACAM). ACAM's original membership was made up of African professionals, and students, and Blacks from the Caribbean Islands who identified with mother continent Africa. Its membership today is predominantly people from the Caribbean Islands.

The above associations were the only and functioning African and related organizations that were in existence until early 1980's. In the 1970's and 1980's a large number of African professionals, refugees and political exiles began migrating to Manitoba. The population of the African community in Manitoba increased enormously. While home to these class of immigrants was still in Africa, most knew from the time of their arrival that their stay in Canada was going to be long. Even members of the student group who previously never saw their presence in Canada as anything but temporary, and their going back to Africa as a matter of time began accepting the fact that going back to their homes in Africa may no longer be immediate. At the same time, the focus of activity began shifting from the narrow students and campus orientation to wider and bigger interests of the larger community. The student associations which were the main organizations in the community were perceived by the groups of the professionals, refugee and political exiles as associations whose basic interests and activities did not necessarily appeal to them. And as a result, most of them neither belonged nor participated in the meetings and deliberations of the student associations.

Some members of the student associations and leaders in the larger community saw the need to change the structure of the existing or new organizations in order to draw membership and participation from the entire African community. In 1983, individuals and some leaders of the various national organizations came together and founded an umbrella organization known as the African Association of Manitoba, Incorporated. While the African Association of Manitoba, Inc. serves as the umbrella organization for all Africans in Manitoba, national and ethnic associations also exist and are required to be affiliated to the umbrella organization. The national/ethnic associations are local and grassroots oriented.

The African Association of Manitoba, Inc. is currently called the African Communities of Manitoba Inc. (ACOMI).

EVENTS/ACTIVITIES

The events and activities of the African Association of Manitoba, Inc. and that of the affiliated national/ethnic associations are similar and coterminous in nature. Their only difference is in scope. The African Association, as an umbrella organization operates from a continental perspective and deals with social and political issues that confront the entire African community here in Manitoba. It also gets involved in political issues that occur in some parts of Africa which do impact on the emotions and collective perception of Africa here, such as the political repression of Africans by the apartheid regime in South Africa. The national and ethnic associations address mostly local issues that are cultural and political. The political issues concern mainly events that are happening in their native countries in Africa. The cultural activities are mainly occasion to celebrate, discuss and relive traditions, help one another, and try to catch up on life back home in Africa. Though members of the African community like and often indulge in discussing politics and political matters, the African Association and the affiliated national/ethnic associations are non-political in terms of party politics, and are non-profit.

Both the African Association and affiliated national associations try to help newly arrived Africans to adjust and adapt to their new environment. Other specific annual social events are Christmas parties for the youth and children, end of the year dance, Africa May Day celebrations, (a one week of events/activities featuring traditional dances, display of African fashions, African foods, stage performance, arts and crafts held in commemoration of the founding of the Organization of African Unity – OAU), and a welcome social, usually held in the month of September to integrate and get acquainted with newly arrived Africans in Manitoba.

Other activities include organizing or hosting conferences and workshops, appearances at multicultural festivals and youth programs. Because of the diversity in cultures and differences in local languages, national/ethnic associations are responsible for promoting heritage language programs. The motto of ACOMI is  "Advancing Community Unity and Prosperity" and the aims and objectives of the Association reflects its motto;

(a) to promote unity, friendliness, brotherhood and sisterhood among Africans in Manitoba;
(b) to facilitate liaison and coordination between African organizations;
(c) to organize and participate in cultural, social, educational, economic and recreational programs; (d) to cooperate with other groups and organizations having similar aims and objectives;
(e) to uphold the good name of Africa;
(f) to assist community projects in Africa, and in the African community in Manitoba;
(g) to mediate differences that may arise among Africans, or between Africans and others, and attempt to resolve conflicts without recourse to legal proceedings;
(h) as resources permit, to assist any group of Africans who desire to form an organization with similar goals; and
(i) to combat bigotry and racism whenever and wherever it may occur.

FACILITIES

The umbrella organization, the African Communities of Manitoba Inc. has a rented office facility at 208 – 720 Broadway Avenue. Arrangements are being made to build a permanent building for the community. Meanwhile, the business, social and cultural activities of the community are coordinated from the above location. The national/ethnic associations are allowed to use the facility to conduct or host their local activities and events. Some, like the Eritrean community have their own private rented premises.

There is no one major annual cultural activity in the African community such as the West Indian Caribana festival in Toronto, or the Caripeg festival in Winnipeg. It goes back to what was said earlier that Africa is a continent of many countries, and within most of the countries are nations and peoples of varied and unique cultures, customs and traditions. The members of the African community see no problem in retaining their traditions and customs for the survival of their ethnic identity. The African community is neither homogeneous nor unified, but there are lots of characteristics and identities which they have in common, and together they are part of a thriving contribution to Manitoba's multicultural mosaic.

POLITICS

The expression that "man is a political animal" aptly describes most members of the African community. Whenever two or more Africans are gathered together, the chances are 95 percent likely that the topic of discussion is politics or political problems back in their home country and in Canada. All things being equal, most of them would criticize the government and make political judgements if the need arises. They would want to be a political force or entity knowing that their goals and aspirations can only be accomplished through active participation in the political and economic apparatus. Given this one would expect very active political involvement by the people in the African community. This is not the case, and many reasons account for this. For our purpose here, only very few are highlighted.

CULTURAL PROFILE

Canada's official cultural policy is pluralism or multiculturalism. It is obvious that the incidence of large French population as a founding member of Canada's confederation helped to establish this country's cultural pluralism. The English-French cultural duality was used as basis to launch the policy of multiculturalism in the 1970's. The implication of Canada's cultural pluralism is that assimilation of the smaller cultural groups by the larger ones such as the English and French will not be officially sanctioned. Immigrants will not be required to abandon their cultural traits and identities for the cultural attributes of the mainstream society. Canada's policy of cultural pluralism seem to suit most members of the African community in Manitoba.

But before we discuss the cultural characteristics of the African community in Manitoba an overview of the demographic trend is necessary.

The exact population figure of the African community in Manitoba is not known. But, according to Statistics Canada, as of 1991, 2,615 immigrants born in Africa live in Manitoba. The members of the African community dispute the figure 2,615 as an accurate number of Africans in Manitoba because it does not include their children born in Manitoba since their arrival, nor does it include their Canadian and other foreign born wives. The estimated number of the African community in Manitoba is about 5,000. It was mentioned in the previous section of this work that the increased immigration of contemporary Africans to Manitoba began in the 1960's. 

An earlier observation was made that the immigration of conventional refugees from Africa to Manitoba started in the 1980's and peaked in the early 1990's. This period also marked an increase in other immigration categories than the traditional student group which previously had been the major class of African immigration to Manitoba. It was stated earlier that contemporary African immigrants to Canada come from all areas of the African continent. However, there is a significant increase in the number of immigrants from Eastern, Northern and Southern Africa as against a decrease in immigrants from Western Africa. In the past years, most of the immigrants have come from Western Africa.

An interesting observation is that while the total number of African immigrant population for Canada is 166,175, only 2,615 or 1.57% are destined for Manitoba. And close to 2,353 or 90% of them reside in Winnipeg. The reason for this can be attributed to the fact that provinces such as Ontario, Quebec, British Columbia and Alberta seem to offer most opportunity for skilled and professional African immigrants, and various figures according to Statistics Canada indicate that 78,200; 46,285; 19,645, and 15,880 reside in these provinces respectively. The choice of Quebec by 46,285 Africans – a significant number – as a preferred province for residence is not surprising as French speaking African immigrants tend to go to Montreal.

In addition, the fact that African core community with developed cultural organizations and opportunities for all sorts of business and social activities exist in metropolitan cities such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver makes them preferred choice of residence for African immigrants to Canada.

African Manitobans come from different backgrounds, culture and value traits. But, there are areas of cultural commonalties that cross the community. There are traditions and customs which are remembered, and standards which they want upheld. They do not want their children to forget their history. Hence, the following institutions and values are emphasized.

MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY

Marriage and the family are very important social institutions in Africa. In marriage, strong feelings of loyalty and cooperation tie families closely together. And family to an African does not simply mean husband and wife and their children but is inclusive of parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, nephews and in-laws on both sides. This is the extended family. This system creates a broad base of people on whom one can depend in times of need. Families care for their sick and elderly and accept responsibility for the caring and upbringing of children if their parents are incapacitated, dead or not able to do it. The children are loved but are treated with firmness. In return, children are expected to show respect for their elders, and accept traditions of the group to which they belong. In Africa, family helps its members to start business, find employment, deal with legal matters, educate sons and daughters and deal with the various other family issues. Family difficulties should be discussed and dealt with privately without outside intervention. To do otherwise causes embarrassment.

According to tradition and custom, marriage is more than a decision and an agreement between man and woman to come together and raise a family. The advice and approval of family and relatives are taken into serious consideration before making or accepting a marriage proposal. Family ties are very important and once established is not easily allowed to fall apart. It is very important to uphold the good name and reputation of one's family, and to observe the traditions and customs of the community. Perhaps, this strict adherence to the tenets of marriage and family life accounts for the low incidence of divorce, separation and broken homes in the African community. Africans in Manitoba express serious concern that their children are abandoning their traditions and disciplined family upbringing for the trappings of a new and freer culture.

LANGUAGE

Language is a prerequisite for the preservation of a cultural identity. Without language there will be no meaningful interaction nor understanding of one another. If one does not understand nor speak the language in his/her environment, there will be a breakdown in the communication of ideas. And, the individual is unlikely to live at ease in that environment. The goodwill shared by the people in a society is the product of language, and as John Locke remarked, human beings are able to enjoy the society in which they live because of their ability to communicate thoughts to one another.

Language is one aspect of culture, and within almost all African countries there are distinct cultures. There is no one indigenous language spoken and understood by all Africans. African languages are different from one another and do not include nor have any indigenous system of writing. There are over 800 languages spoken by the various peoples of Africa. This makes it difficult for the average African to communicate amongst themselves. However, there are certain languages which members of different groups can speak and understand. Some of them are Arabic, Swahili and Hausa. In addition, millions of Africans use the languages of the former European colonialist to conduct daily business, government affairs and international relations. These languages are English, French or Portuguese. Other languages spoken include Malagasy – a language of the Malayo – Polynesian group and the various Indian languages spoken by the people of Asian ancestry who live in eastern and southern Africa.

African Manitobans speak their heritage languages in their homes and with the members of their organizations when they come together for meetings, celebrations or hold general discussions on the phone. But their language of communication in general with the members of the larger society in Manitoba is English. Most of them also communicate with their Canadian born children in English while making efforts to teach them their heritage languages. In fact, some national/ethnic associations such as the Umunna (Igbo) Cultural Group of Manitoba Inc. have started heritage language programs for their children. They realize that ability to understand and speak their heritage language sustains a historical and cultural link to the homeland in the old country.

While English, French and Portuguese are second languages to Africans, they are spoken very fluently and understood very well by Africans. After all, these languages were the lingua franca under colonial rule in Africa. So for African Manitobans, language problems or the ability to communicate in English – the lingua franca in Manitoba is not a major headache.

TRADITIONS

As it is in culture, African traditions are varied and diverse. Most of the traditions can be described as unwritten or oral codes of conduct passed on from generation to generation. Africans revere their traditions and those who have been known to violate any aspect of them pay hefty restitution. There are some forms of traditions that are commonly observed, and time and place do not alter their importance.

The African is by tradition and custom a socialist. The Western rugged individualism and the concept of self which emphasize individual rights, personal happiness and self-advancement, self-determination and privacy are not necessarily aspects of African culture. Africans prefer and cherish intense family togetherness, and interdependence among immediate and extended family members. The individual lives his/her life in the context of the larger family, village group, and ethnic origin. One lives for past, present and future generations rather than for self.

The African believes that everything on earth is God's creation and that man should live in harmony with nature and try not to subjugate or conquer it. The Western world holds the opposite view. In Western societies, sex and sexual relations are openly discussed and people express love and affection even in public places. The African society by tradition, custom and convention does not accept public expression of love, affection and sexuality. Certain unnatural and abnormal sexual relations are taboo, forbidden and would result in ostracization. Even sexual education is the exclusive responsibility of highly regarded adults in the community, such as family heads, grandmothers and big aunts.

Africans believe that life and death are parts and parcel of each other. And that death, illness or diseases are ordained by God or nature. Therefore, these adversities, when they occur should be faced with grace and endurance. And that when death occurs, the mourning, grieving and funeral should be an automatic collective responsibility of both immediate and extended family.

Most Africans have great believe and faith in traditional healing, as such traditional healers are held in high esteem. It is not unusual for an African to seek consultations with a traditional healer the same time that he/she is being treated by a Western trained medical doctor. And instances abound where traditional healers were able to heal major health problems that defied modern Western medicine. Often, faith is credited for these phenomenal health accomplishments. Be that as it may, what tends to be forgotten is that African traditional healing process (medicine) is natural and holistic.

African traditions emphasize forgiveness and the extension and acceptance of the hands of friendship. After hundreds of years of European colonialism, exploitation and dehumanizing treatment, one would expect Africans to be angry and hostile to Europeans now that African countries are politically independent. But this has not happened. There are Europeans living and working all over Africa as citizens, immigrants or contract workers. Mr. Nelson Mandela is a good example of the African's forgiving nature. Mr. Mandela who spent the best years (27) of his adult life in white man's prison in South Africa is championing the cause for peace and reconciliation between Africans and Europeans in South Africa.

Africans pride themselves in their tradition of hospitality and acceptance of foreigners or strangers. Africans do not necessarily need or give invitations before visits can be exchanged. You can simply show up at the door of any family member, relation or friend and you will be quite welcome and very well received. There is an expression and understanding amongst Africans that visits without formal invitation or when not expected is the most fun. Thus, the sharing of one's wealth, happiness, food, drinks and all joyous occasions that bring people together is highly valued. In the same vein, they will help you in hard times.

Some aspects of commonly shared traditions are behavioural and attitudinal and others are ceremonial. A good example of the former is respect for elders and authority figures, and for the later, the observation or celebration of the harvest or Kwanza festival.

On respect for elders and authority figures, parents emphasize to their children the need to recognize and accept the wisdom and knowledge of the elders which time and rights of passage have bestowed upon them. Appropriate mannerisms, politeness and deference to the views of elders are regarded as good character traits. For instance, in most African societies, a young person should not look an elder in the face or make direct eye to eye contact because it is a sign of disrespect. Given that this code of behaviour is generally seen as implying dishonesty and deceit in this society, one has to wonder what goes on in the minds of the elder Canadians when Africans that they have interaction with have out of respect and custom, refused to look them in the face. Children are taught to respect people in positions of authority such as the police and teachers. Perhaps this accounts for the virtually absent negative interaction between the authority figures and the people in the African community.

The observation of harvest or Kwanza festival is a common ceremony with slight variations in the different parts of Africa. Amongst the Ibos of Nigeria, is a celebration of the first produce of the farm after the planting season. It is called the new yam festival. It is an occasion to rejoice, make merry, share the rewards of your farm labour with others and thank God for the abundant yields of the farm. Kwanza in parts of Eastern Africa is a special time when families come together to celebrate and give thanks for all that had been achieved in the planting and harvesting seasons. The first day of Kwanza is called Umoja or Unity, when families come together in unity to share in their rich blessings and appreciate each others love and care.

Amongst the people of Swaziland it is known as the sacred Inwala or "Festival of the First Fruits." During this event, ceremonies are held and sacrifices are made to renew the strength and power of the land for the coming seasons. These are just examples of the myriads of traditions that are observed in the different parts of Africa. And African Manitobans practice and retain some of these traditions as much as possible within a Canadian lifestyle.

ARTS

Art work and artistic culture have been very highly developed in parts of Africa for thousands of years. According to World Book Encyclopaedia, the oldest known African artwork and pre-historic paintings have been found in the Tassili range in the Sahara on rocks and on the walls of caves and rock shelters. Ancient Egypt is world famous for its architecture, paintings and sculptures. Modern Africa is replete with creative and artistic beadwork, leather work, pottery, metal work, weaving, bastery, textile dying, etc. To an African, art is a way of life.

Many African sculptures are made of hard-wood, bronze, ivory and a form of soil called "terra cotta." Some African sculptures made of terra cotta are reputed to have been created "about A.D. 500 by the Nok culture of southern Nigeria."1 Ancient African cities such as Ile-lfe and the former Benin Kingdom, in Nigeria are known to have produced high quality bronze figure heads and plaques, and ivory ornaments dating from 1400's to the 1700's. It has been said that "the imaginative designs and simple, dramatic forms of African sculpture influenced such famous modern European artists as Georges Braque, of France, Henry Moore of Great Britain, and Pablo Picasso of Spain."

MUSIC

Music is part of every day life in Africa. Music is performed for birth and burial ceremonies, marriage and weddings, entertainment at royal courts, religious and initiation performances. When Africans perform dances, sing songs or listen to the tune and rhythms of music, it is done with the involvement of the body, mind and soul. The complexities of rhythms, choral singing, blues, work songs and church music common among African-Americans is reflective of African music, art and culture. Widely acclaimed music such as jazz, Western popular music, West Indian Reggae and Calypso and Latin American dance music are all off-shots of African music.

Many African Manitobans regularly update their supply and collection of records and tapes from their homes in Africa. Social occasions are used to play, enjoy and dance to their rhythm. The melodious tunes of African music make them easily danceable and dance forms and styles are in abundance.

RELIGION

Concerning religion, Ikejiani observed ........ religion is adaptable to the needs of the people and the needs vary with the social economic milieu in which people find themselves. Religion helps people interpret their own life pattern and role in the society, and therefore, can be referred to as a legitimating agent. A legitimation is an explanation or justification for the way things are. Religion is the most powerful legitimating agent because it relates the precarious constructions of man, with ultimate reality. Religion for instance, explains both poverty and wealth or illness and good health to the persons involved.

Religion in Africa can be classified into three spheres. They are:

(a) According to the World Book Encyclopaedia, 200 million Africans practice local traditional/indigenous religions. Most of the local religions have a lot in common, such as explaining the origin of the universe, the concept of right and wrong, the relationship between nature and human beings, how to live a good, full and happy life, the reasons for wealth and poverty, good health, illness and sufferings and how to avoid misfortune.

All traditional/indigenous African religions teach and adhere to the concept of a supreme God, the creator of heaven and earth. They also believe that this supreme God has as his messengers lesser gods/angles and that it is through them that people should seek help from the supreme God. This recognition is not that different from the Christian teaching which advocates the worship of God Almighty through Jesus Christ his Son.

(b) The Islamic religion is the dominant religion in North Africa, and a very strong influence and force in many African countries south of the Sahara where the Christian religion is also practised. About 250 million Africans are adherents to the Islamic faith.

(c) About 200 million Africans are members of the Christian faith. Most of them belong to the Roman Catholic sect or to the various branches of the Protestant Churches. There are also, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church to which most Ethiopians belong, and Coptic Orthodox Church in Egypt with about 7 million members.

There are also other independent African religious groups that combine Christian religious beliefs with local traditional African religious practices. For example, the Aladura Church in Nigeria.

African Manitobans are either Christians or Muslims, and those who practice these religions take their faith very seriously.

LITERATURE

Africa has a wealth of traditional oral literature. This literature includes the history of ethnic origins, kinship groups, affiliations formed and broken, legends of cultural heroes, animal fables, proverbs and wise sayings, riddles and songs, and the veneration of Kings and Chiefs. Oral literature features prominently in religious events. It serves as a means of recording events of the past, teaching and imparting morals, codes of conduct and passing on traditions to the young. In the past, Africa's oral literature had no archival recordings, that is, preservation of the past through documentation. But today, scholars are recording Africans' oral literature in order to preserve them. Works in African oral literature are now available in many African languages such as Hausa, Igbo, Somalia, Swahili, Yoruba, Zulu and in Ethiopian Coptic writing. But most of the literary works of African scholars are written in English, French or Portuguese – all colonial languages. Oral literature includes plays, story telling, narrations, recitals and drama. Written literature includes plays, novels, drama and poetry. In recent times, two Africans, a Nigerian and an Egyptian have won the Noble laureate for literature.

FOOD AND DRINK

The typical African daily food consists of starchy and fibrous foods such as rice, yams, grains, plantains, cassava, vegetables, millet, maize/corn and flour cooked into a porridge. Food is usually served with a sauce prepared of tomatoes, flavouring condiments and pieces of meat. Foods such as plantains and yams may be fried, cooked into a porridge or simply boiled and served with vegetables.

In many parts of Africa, because of scarcity and cost, meat is not a daily part of the average family's menu. However, a large quantity of meat is eaten on special or ceremonial occasions. Meat usually consists of chicken, goat, sheep/lamb or beef. Bush meat is also eaten when it can be afforded. Fish is an important part of the daily diet, especially for people who live along sea coasts, lakes and river areas. Africans like the Massai of Kenya,who keep cattle in large numbers and as a symbol of wealth, live largely on milk, cheese and a thick sour milk product that is in the form of yogurt. They also draw blood from their cattle, especially during ceremonial occasions. The blood is boiled and eaten, mixed with milk and drank or taken raw.

The most common form of drink is local beer made from palm trees, maize and millet grains, or plantains. City dwellers drink mainly the kind of beer and wine that you would expect to find in any city, some are foreign brewed and others are produced in local breweries.

In Manitoba, most Africans long for the food they have been accustomed to back home. Often most of the foods cannot be bought in Manitoba food stores, some are available. Most Africans improvise, using close substitutes for the food items or ingredients that are not easily available or produced in Manitoba. It takes a lot of time to prepare a delicious African dish, married people, especially those whose spouses are Africans enjoy the regular treat of traditional African home cooked meals. Many of those who are not married, especially students, do not have the time to prepare traditional African food they use to enjoy. To this group, and the younger generation of African Manitobans, the standard Canadian meals become acceptable and relished.

SPORTS

The game of soccer or football as it is generally known among Africans is the greatest national past time in all African countries. Soccer/football is to the African what hockey, baseball, basketball or football is to the North American sports fan. During the colonial period, and for a long time after political independence, the game of soccer or football was played by amateurs as a hobby or recreation. Of late, this sporting event has become professionalized and those who have the talents have found careers in it. Other popular sport events which have become professionalized include field and track events, volleyball, basketball, tennis and of course, boxing. African countries have produced Olympic champions in field and track events such as the marathon, and world champions in the various weight classes of boxing. For the African Manitoban, soccer or football remains the most popular sporting event, and there is a local soccer/football club whose membership is open to all interested members of the community. The game of tennis is regularly played in the summer by some members of the African community. The community has produced athletes who are on the provincial and national basketball teams.

COMMUNICATIONS

There are no broadly circulated newspapers and magazines or television and radio shows operating in the African community. But, there is a quarterly publication - The African – produced by the African Association of Manitoba Inc. The African is used as a means to reach members of the community and to foster cultural identify. It also carries African news and local community issues which are not usually reported in the mainstream press. While the African community has no radio/television program, it has access to the SHAW Program/Public Access television, channel 11 in Winnipeg. And it has used it when necessary to draw attention to events or activities in the community. In addition, individuals and associations subscribe to and receive African monthly magazines or journals such as West Africa, New African, Africa Today, Africa Report, etc. The individuals who subscribe and receive these magazines usually pass them on to the other members of the community to read. The associations require people to sign borrowing forms in order to be loaned copies of their magazines or journals. Members of the African community regularly communicate with each other by telephone. In fact, this is the major means of disseminating news from their homeland to members of the community and for maintaining regular contact with their relatives back in Africa. The other forms of communication are regular letter writing and annual or periodic visits to the homeland in Africa.

EDUCATION PROFILE

PRE-COLONIAL EDUCATION

The nature of education in any society is often an inevitable product of the social, political, economic and religious climate of the time and place. Therefore, no study of the education profile of the African community is complete without some knowledge of the indigenous education system available in Africa before the arrival of the Europeans. Every society or culture has a pattern of educating its children to suit its objectives, and the culture takes pride in the method its children are educated. The goal of education may differ depending on the state or nation, but regardless of the method used the end is usually accomplished. Despite what early European anthropologists in Africa have said and written, this great continent has a definite way of life. Pre-colonial African countries had social institutions of civilization that pre-dates the arrival of the first Europeans in the continent. Traditional or informal education was one such institution. The obvious fallacy that Africa has no educational culture prompted this remark from E.B. Castles:

One of the saddest mistakes of early missionaries was their assumption that they brought education to an entirely uneducated people. If literacy and formal schooling constitute the whole of education, they are right; but in-so-far as education is a preparation for living in the society in which we are born, they were profoundly wrong. For in the deepest sense African customary education was a true education.

Given that education "refers to the broad function of preserving and improving the life of the group through bringing new members into shared cultures, the means through which African cultures perpetuate themselves are truly educational." In pre-colonial Africa, education could be described as "a far broader process than that which occurs in schools. It was an essential process through which communities continued to exist."

African traditional education can be defined as "the learning process locally derived, as in the community context, having continued for a long period of time, some more recent, being local responses to perceived incompleteness or inadequacies in the total education program of the community."

A major function of traditional education is to inculcate in the individual the ways and means of living and socializing in the society. Implicit in this argument is that there is more to traditional education than mere socialization, such as "problem-solving and conceptual thinking." Any attempt to measure the literacy values of traditional education on the basis of Western perspective may not validate its adequacy because it should be seen and evaluated "by its performance within a given social context".

The fundamentals of traditional education are derived from "a philosophical view of man that is quite distinct from that implicit in Western education." In traditional societies, people tend to hold a dualistic view of the "nature of Man." This is contrary to the Christian dualist perception of the body and soul. Woodhouse expressed it in this manner:

traditional African societies view man as both visible and invisible, as demonstrated by the relationship between the living and the dead. The ancestors are invisible but in close contact with the living. Education in such societies aimed at maintaining this dual nature of man and at making adequate preparation for the invisible state when the individual is alive and visible. These religious objectives influence the methods of education.

So, taken from a philosophical and religious perspective, the aim of traditional education was to "produce a disciplined member of the Society," while its purpose was to prepare the individual for adult life and to accept responsibilities in the society. Fajana argues that traditional education, among other things, was expected "to discipline all the faculties of the individuals; to bring out the best human qualities; and to help them at different stages to become useful members of the society."

The precept of traditional education was not only philosophical and religious, it was also participatory and functional. It was participatory in the sense that it was people learning by doing, by involvement in political, social, religious and economic activities of the Society. And it was functional in the sense that it was a means of bringing the community together where learning included story-telling, narration of ancient and ancestral history, poetry, legends, reasoning, local geography and sing-songs.

Fafunwa identifies seven categories of traditional educational objectives in an African society:

1. To develop the child's latent physical skill.
2. To develop character.
3. To inculcate respect for elders and those in positions of authority.
4. To develop intellectual skills.
5. To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude toward honest labour.
6. To develop a sense of belonging to participate actively in family and community affairs.
7. To understand, appreciate, and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large.
 

The education of the individual in the African society starts in infancy within the context of the family, the kin groups and peer groups. The individual learns from parents and the immediate environment. And with the passage of time, uncles, aunts, and relatives are involved in the education of the person. This involves sending the child on minor errands, teaching him/her good manners, forms of obedience and respect for adults. This is a very important aspect of traditional African education code of behaviours.

So traditional education in the African society was seen as a means to an end and not an end in itself, and its purpose and aim were clear. This simple and informal pattern of education in traditional African society was what prompted some Western writers, missionaries and visitors to Africa to assert that pre-colonial Africa had no system of education. Those who have become informed enough to acknowledge the existence of educational activities in traditional African society have because of the absence of school buildings or written records, denied its efficacy and branded the informal education as primitive and below standard in quality. Others still describe it as a "complex educational activities."

In spite of the above, it can be seen from this brief review that Africa, in terms of some kind of educational activity, was not a tabula rasa waiting to be written full when the Europeans arrived. There was some form of education in pre-colonial Africa and it stressed economic and psychological independence, and encouraged political participation and respect for the bonds of friendship. David Lamb concurs with the above views when he commented:

black Africa is... no cultural upstart. The Noks were casting iron and producing terra-cotta sculpture before the birth of Christ. The northern cities of Kano and Katsina were cosmopolitan terminals on the trans-Sahara caravan routes when William the Conqueror ruled England. And when the first Europeans reached Benin in the fifteenth century – a good many years before Columbus set off for the Americas – they found a highly organized kingdom with a disciplined army, an elaborate ceremonial court, and artisans whose work in ivory, bronze, wood and brass is prized throughout the world today for its craftsmanship and beauty.

EDUCATION IN COLONIAL TIME

The transition from traditional/informal education to the Western system of education began in the early 1500's when European Christian missionaries and explorers arrived in the West Coast of Africa. They understood that it would serve their best interest to have Africans with whom they could communicate.

At the early stages, the missions and missionaries took a leading role in establishing schools and providing education because schools attracted converts to Christianity. Later, the colonial administrators became interested in education because of the possibilities it contained for training a skilled local labour force and imparting within the indigenous populations the understanding and respect for European concept and principles of "law and order". But Western education at a large scale did not begin until the 1900's. In the late nineteenth century, Africa had been divided among the European colonial powers at the Berlin conference of 1884-85. Britain, France, Belgium, Germany and other colonial powers expanded trade and increased the volume of business and government administration in their colonized African countries. Hence the need to establish more schools and increase the local labour force. The Western system of education was fully entrenched by the time most African countries gained political independence in the late 1950's and early 1960's.

EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENT AFRICA

When colonized African countries became independent in the 1960's, African governments in the tradition of the colonialists began to establish educational programs and build many more schools. A lot more Africans were needed to occupy positions in government, business, industry, military and foreign service. Many Africans began to realize that membership in the elite and intelligentsia class required solid education. The schools and colleges in most of the African countries could not accommodate the large number of people wanting Western education. The alternative was to go overseas, and those whose families could afford the cost, or were brilliant enough to compete for and secure government sponsorship began coming abroad for their education. This began the process of contemporary African migration to Canada, nay, Manitoba. The consequence today is the growth and development of the African community in Manitoba.

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IN MANITOBA

Given what has been established above, it should surprise no one to know that Africans prize the pursuit and attainment of education over and above every other human endeavour. This may not be unlike any other immigrant group in Manitoba. The point is that education is probably the primary goal that Africans have in common. In a book by W.G. McD. Patridge (1961) on the Portrait of an African School, there is this comment:

Education in Africa is not just something your parents want you to have and which you go on getting until you can decently give it up... Rather it is a means of an easy, easeful life, away from the toil and soiled hands and monotony of life in the village. It makes a person modern, up-to-date, enables a man to wear gloves, carry brief-case, and look like the young men in the advertisement. But ask any African teacher trainee why he is one, the answer comes pat, "Because I want to help my people."

Those who are familiar with the education environment in Africa argue that this kind of response connotes no hypocrisy because the sense of education being something essentially linked to the development of the community and the proper service of the people has axiomatic force.

Parents, family members, and communities work hard, often sacrifice their own financial needs and extend their limits in order to provide education for their children. It is believed that the education of even one person in the family or community has an immeasurable reward for the society. There is an indication that the educational attainment of African born Canadian aged 15 years and over is higher than that of the Canadian-born at the non-university and university levels.

The Africans in Manitoba have continued this tradition of seeing and using education at any level as the instrument par-excellence for individual and collective socio-political and economic development and advancement. They are willing to pursue education in whatever form, that is, academic, professional, technical and vocational, and study to acquire certificates, skills, and credentials at any level. All in all, the ultimate understanding is that education should be pursued and acquired, and that it should be used as a means to breakdown barriers of all sorts. A sample survey of the educational attainment in the African community shows that there is no shortage of academic, professional or technical-know. If anything, the problem in the community is the non-use and under-utilization of the skills and knowledge of qualified men and women. It is a knowledge resource based community.

ECONOMIC PROFILE

BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS

In this section of the profile, an overview of the background characteristics is presented to enable the reader to understand the context in which some issues are discussed and to be able to relate to them appropriately. The background information represents a diversity of Africans in Manitoba in terms of age distribution, occupation levels, educational attainment and income levels.

The age distribution of the population in any society is indicative of its labour force participation rates. In Tables V.I and V.II, it can be seen that a majority of both male and female African immigrants to Canada (77 percent and 76.8 percent) respectively arrived in their active years. And Table V.III shows that for Manitoba, it is about 84 percent for both males and females. Active years here is defined as working age. This means a high labour participation rate for the members of the African community in Manitoba.

The occupational distribution levels of the members of the African community shows a noticeable difference from the Canadian-born labour force. Table V.IV and V.V are distributions according to ten major occupational classes for males and females, respectively. It can be seen that a higher percentage of African immigrants than Canadians had managerial or professional jobs: 43.5 versus 22.2 for males and 25.7 versus 24.4 for females. Given that people in these occupations usually earn higher average salaries, the average income distribution level in the African community should be probably higher and the unemployment rate ought to be lower, too. But unfortunately, this is not the case as the figures in Table V.VI indicate. Two factors may account for this situation. One is that the professional and managerial occupation category necessarily is diverse, containing occupation groups ranging from medicine, dentistry, engineering, law, accountants, nursing to teaching; thereby causing an over-representation of this category. The other is the reality of job market situation which forces immigrants often to accept lower position jobs in their professions. There are other factors which create this situation and they are discussed fully in the next pages. One obvious fact for the members of the African community in the major occupation categories is that they are relatively well educated.

Given the above average educational and occupational attainments of the people in the African community, the prediction would be that income levels are likely above the national average, and that the unemployment rate would also be lower than the national average. The answer to both predictions are false. Again, we can see from Table 5 – VI that the average family income for the sample in the African community was $39,429, while the average household income for the same period for all Canada and Manitoba as reported by Statistics Canada was $51,856 and $46,214 respectively. And the unemployment rate in the African community is 20 percent as against 11 and 10 percent for Canada and Manitoba respectively. It is even probable that the unemployment rate in the community was under reported because most people who are unemployed are embarrassed by their situation and prefer that outsiders be not told about it. The other point is that most of those who are underemployed or work part-time may choose for the above reason to report being on full-time employment.

As it can be seen, the unemployment rate in the African community is very high. The educational and occupational attainments in the community makes this situation unacceptable. It is a major problem that has to be addressed. This unfortunate situation is hitting hardest the highly educated class in the managerial, administrative and official category. The exception appears to be those in the professions such as medicine and related fields, and law. It makes no difference whether it is public or private sector employment. Most of the Africans employed in the private sector work at levels that might be considered underqualified or are underemployed, while many in the public sector employment have either lost their jobs or are very insecure about the future of their jobs. Before April, 1991, about 13 Africans held full-time employment in Manitoba's public service. In the past two years, about 6 out of 13 (more than 46%) Africans have lost their jobs as a result of downsizing or restructuring in the Manitoba public service. It is a typical case of last hired, first fired, although some of them have worked for the province for more than 10 years. The employment equity or affirmative action programs introduced by the government in recent years to help people like these African Manitobans have not worked for them. And many people in the community feel that racism and discrimination are the reasons for their downward movement in the job market. They argue that it is not a matter of hard or difficult economic times, after all, others, such as white Manitobans with equal and in some cases lower educational and occupational attainments, are not losing their jobs at the same rate as Africans. Most people in the community cannot understand why and how a country that spends millions of dollars to keep people in school, encourages and emphasizes that a good educational attainment is necessary for the development and well-being of the individual and society is unable to appreciate and make use of the variety of skills and expertise available in their community. More than 90 percent of the people in the community are of the opinion that institutional racial discrimination is responsible for the abnormally high unemployment rate facing them. For them it is not a matter of difficult economic times. This is a problem that has always been there.

In spite of the above, the people in the African community are hard working and determined to carve out a future for themselves and their families without counting the sacrifices. They are willing to accept and do any work to provide for their families. Social assistance or welfare support is usually frowned upon and the few that may be forced to resort to it, do so with great reluctance and embarrassment. The stress cause by loss of job and the uncertainty of employment prospects in the future are having some serious effects on a growing number of people in the country. There have been reported cases of some people resorting to alcohol or venting their anger and frustrations on their families as a coping mechanism. In the face of all these, the general attitude in the community remains positive. The African is an eternal optimist, he/she believes that tomorrow will be better than today.

BUSINESSES

All things being equal, most members of the Manitoba African community are not business inclined. They would rather prefer employment in the private or public sector. Ever since the establishment of Western system of schools in Africa, education has been looked upon by many Africans to serve various functions. The average African views the acquisition of a solid education with commensurate employment in the public or private sector as the ticket for membership in the elite status, and for social mobility. It is on record that the geo-political systems in which most people in the African community grew up in Africa are led and dominated by members of the educated class. The acquisition of certificates, diplomas and degrees is the means to rich job opportunities, social status, and possibly, political leadership.

It is a common knowledge among Africans that rich and wealthy half-educated or uneducated businessmen who may not want to share power or prestige with their peers are generally eager and willing to court the friendship and acceptance of the well-educated elite. So, the predisposition of the African for paid employment, whether in the private or public sector, after a solid educational attainment can be described as culture related. It is culture related in the sense that in many African countries, most businesses at the small scale level are undertaken by half-educated or uneducated classes. The relative lack of interest to go into business for one's self amongst the people in the African community is not due to the absence of business acumen.

But over the past few years, a change in attitude towards going into business for one's self is emerging. There has been a general decline in the economy, many people have lost their jobs and others no longer regard their jobs as secure. As a result, individuals are venturing into small scale businesses. There are now a variety of businesses such as grocery stores, autobody shops, boutiques and hairdressing salons, janitorial services, travel agencies, recycling, etc. Other business ventures are taxi cabs and courier services. See Appendix A for a listing of the businesses that were started with the personal savings of owners accumulated at great sacrifice over a number of years, and a little help from relatives and friends. Very few of them were able to access and obtain loans from the banks. The general attitude of the financial institutions and commercial banks is reluctance, at least in the initial stage, to the risk in lending money to immigrants for business. Most of the business people in the African community are very much familiar and knowledgeable of the complex market place, difficulties associated with accessing programs established to assist small scale businesses, and the many requirements that have to be met before one is licensed to operate a business.

Most of them know about the existence of the 14 businesses and economic development initiative programs identified and listed in Appendix D. But every one of the proprietors listed in the Appendix is of the opinion that the time and energy spent in finding out and trying to use these programs is a waste as those who made the effort were give the run-around and encountered red tape and bureaucratic dilly-dallying. They therefore cannot be bothered by a system that doesn't seem to want to accommodate them.

The structure of businesses in the African community of Manitoba as already indicated is small scale, most are intra-Manitoba and a few others are inter-provincial. One or two have ventured into the international arena, importing a great portion of their supplies and materials from African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, etc. Most of the others have not yet explored doing or extending their businesses outside Canada or to their old countries in Africa. It involves more money and resources than many of them can afford at this stage to explore business opportunities in Africa or elsewhere.

Many of the business proprietors in the community know of the immense investment and business opportunities that abound in Africa. The biggest constraint in following up on them is money. This is where the financial institutions and the commercial banks will have been of help, but as was noted earlier, they have not been forthcoming in investing or lending money to African immigrant business proprietors.

The general nature of the businesses in the community is that all of them are family oriented, that is, husband and wife owned and operated. The employees are usually the man and his wife, often their grown up children who may work in the business full-time or part-time, depending on the volume and degree of turn-over, and profit margin. Most of the businesses are not yet in the position to hire outsiders for employment. There are also some joint ventures where two people who individually and independently would not be able to raise sufficient starting capital for business came together, pooled their resources and opened a business. Those that have taken this business route are mostly in the cab – taxi and handi-transit services.

Apart from those in autobody, auto mechanic and auto-garage repair services, the majority of the business owners do not possess any occupational or professional preparations or training in their particular areas of business. More than 95 percent of them are graduates whose major areas of studies were in general arts and science degrees. Yet many of them have achieved a remarkable degree of success in the financial and management operations of their business. According to the proprietors contacted, their business appears financially stable, that is, their debt/equity ratio are in equilibrium. Although, they welcome any outside help to enable them expand or increase their business volume.

EMERGING ISSUES & PROBLEMS

UNFULFILLED EXPECTATIONS

In the section on cultural profile, three groups, namely, the student, professional and, refugee and exile were identified as the contemporary African immigrants to Canada. It was also mentioned that they came from all areas of Africa, with unique and varied cultural characteristics. No matter the group, country of origin or cultural characteristics in which any of the contemporary Africans in Manitoba may belong, one thing that most of them have in common, apart from their categorization as Africans or Blacks, is that Canada indeed, is not a land of limitless opportunity that they had expected. Many have become outright disillusioned and continue to wonder why the skills and qualifications that they brought with them or acquired here in Canada are under utilized by the host country. Because of this situation, many do suffer periods of frustration, status dislocation, and the general strain that is often associated with trying to re-establish one's self in a new environment.

The expectations of these Africans cannot be said to be unrealistic, considering the credentials with which most of them arrived in Canada. For example, many are of a younger average, with an educational skill, background, and occupational experience that are among the highest for all immigrant groups. The number that have university degrees and professional training is often double the immigrant average, and there is hardly anyone without one form of college/university education or the other. Granted that it is not uncommon for new immigrants to be confronted by the problems outlined above, for Africans, it has taken a longer period and duration. Many of them accept jobs that do not fully and adequately utilize their skills, knowledge and experience, and are paid salaries that are below their qualifications. And many years after living and working here, most Africans are still suffering low occupational status. The exception is perhaps, medical doctors and others in related fields. Even them, some of their experiences and frustrations are nothing one should write home about.

This has fostered a feeling of alienation, and the perception that white Canadians do not want to accept Africans as equals. This discourages a feeling of belonging in Canada and Manitoba. As was noted in the section on economic profile, Africans are amongst the lowest paid of any immigrant group, and this situation becomes even more disquieting when education, skills and experience are all considered. The fact that white Canadians with similar qualifications and experience are paid higher incomes and enjoy better job status than their African counterparts, suggests that the frustrations and unfulfilled expectations that are being expressed are not unwarranted, neither can they be called a "persecution complex".

Most Africans have not had a successful adaptation to their new homes in this society. The frustrations of unfulfilled economic expectations being suffered by many African Manitobans have decreased their acceptance of Canada as a probable permanent home and increased their attachment and commitment to their homes in Africa. How can they sever ties with the homes that they left in Africa when the prospects for full acceptance and achieving their economic goals and dreams in Canada appears to be in doubt. Africans need to be accepted and integrated into the political and economic systems of Canada and Manitoba, they must have access and participate fully in the continuous development and advantages available in Canada.

OBSTACLES AND BARRIERS

Many factors are responsible for the downward occupational status of most people in the African community. But only a few of them are highlighted here due to the scope of this paper.

EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES

Most people in the African community complain that when they apply for employment or positions which they have the qualifications and experience, they are told that they needed Canadian experience. This is the case even when their resumes document that similar and equal positions with matching duties and job descriptions have been occupied in the past before immigrating to Canada. The feelings, therefore, are that job opportunities are being denied members of the African-Manitoba community for reasons that do not bear on their ability to perform the job, but rather with the colour of their skin. This is racial discrimination.

PROMOTION AND ADVANCEMENT

Many people in the African community feel that even after securing the job and proving that they possess the skills to perform, they are still not given equal opportunity for promotion and advancement. The system of promotion and advancement favours more white colleagues, including most often those whose qualifications are not superior to their African counterparts. Those who have been affected reported that when they complained, supervisors accused them of "whining". The blame is placed on the shoulders of supervisors who make the recommendations for promotion. Many of the Africans who have unfortunately had this experience, see them as the obstacles in their workplace for upward mobility.

RACIAL DISCRIMINATION

The position of most people in the African community is that racism or racial discrimination is the root cause of all the obstacles and barriers to stable, upward mobile employment opportunities. Although the argument can be made that racial and ethnic relations tend to become tense and strained during periods of economic stagnation, majority of the people in the African community feel that it is a widespread problem which has always been there. Racism can be manifested in many and varied forms, such as prejudice, bias and favouritism. It is an act of denying a person opportunities because of their race or skin colour rather than the ability to perform. And discrimination refers to the act of differential treatment usually of a negative nature towards a person or an individual because of their membership in a group. And often, it is done to create a disadvantage of some kind. Racial discrimination can be characterized and manifested in the values and attitudes of management, supervisors and other employees who share in a status quo and fear that any change could affect their vested interests. It may be manifested in an "old boys" network of relationships with a corporate culture that regards those outside it as aliens and not fit for admission. It may also be manifested in selection mechanisms that operate to reduce the number of "aliens" who apply for jobs. This form of racial discrimination is particularly hard to deal with because the problem is institutionalized.

RECOGNITION AND VALIDATION OF CREDENTIALS

Credentials as used here is inclusive of degree, diploma, certificate and work experience gained or acquired abroad before immigrating to Canada. Many people in the African community, particularly those that immigrated to Canada as refugees complained about the non-recognition of their credentials by prospective employers. This has forced most of them to accept jobs that are not in the area of their training and thereby, are underemployed. In fact, some people stated that prospective employers and institutions of higher learning have told them that their credentials were worthless. In this case, the affected Africans are not the only ones loosing economically, the Province of Manitoba is also loosing available qualified skills in fields that have skills shortages. The members of the African community perceive the non-recognition of their credentials, especially, the work experience that was acquired abroad as another obstacle and barrier that prevents them from getting employment. The demand for Canadian qualifications and/or experience is unfair since it is almost impossible for newly arrived immigrants to have Canadian experience. And the only way that they can acquire these credentials/experience is by being employed in their trained professional fields. They want this problem addressed.

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION AND EMPLOYMENT EQUITY

The people in the African community want and support affirmative action and employment equity programs, and advocate that they be applied in hiring and promotion practices on the basis of merit. But the general feeling is that nothing much of significance has been achieved in affirmative action and employment equity practices. The goal of hiring more ethnic minorities through these programs have been virtually abandoned due to a wave of layoffs and budget cuts. A lot of people in the African community have lost their jobs – typical case of last hired, first fired.

Statistics from the three levels of government on the overall hiring of ethnic minority employees is depressing. Figures from the City of Winnipeg show the number of ethnic employees for 1991 at 4.2 percent, the province was 3 percent, and federal figure at 3.6 percent.

The recession is being blamed for these abysmal records in tackling systematic barriers in employment for ethnic minorities, but the fact remains that these programs have been in operation for almost ten years. it is not a matter of recession or longevity of these programs but a problem of lack of enforcement mechanism which has limited the effectiveness of both affirmative action and employment equity programs in public and private sectors. Both programs are not only the right way to go, they make good business sense in Manitoba's cultural mosaic. Multiculturalism advocates diversity, and diversity can generate dynamism and creativity for the enrichment of entire society.

The government should provide support to make affirmative action and employment equity more meaningful. It is time to get beyond tokenism in the hiring of Africans and other ethnic minorities. There is the need for clearly stated objective and operational definitions of the two programs, and an enforcement mechanism to achieve them. Objective definition would spell out what the goals to be accomplished are, they must be tangible and measurable. Operational definition should spell out how goals are to be accomplished, state who is responsible and accountable for achievements or failures. And the enforcement mechanisms should have legislative authority behind them. This would make it difficult for coordinators or implementors of these programs who are not very supportive of them to subvert and manipulate them.

THE WILL TO SUCCEED

In spite of all the socio-political and economic problems examined in this study which the members of the African community are facing, most people are still very optimistic that their lot will invariably improve. There is the understanding in many that change occurs over time, and that the simple passage of time will help white Canadians to adjust and accept the reality of increased and permanent presence of immigrants from Africa in Manitoba. There is the will to succeed or "make it" in spite of all the odds against them. There is the understanding that you can be down but accept not to be counted out. And that no matter how many doors are closed to them, that they will never be tired of knocking until all or most doors become open. This is called keeping hope alive, and keeping faith eternal. This expression of resolute, absolute single minded definiteness of purpose to succeed should not surprise the reader, as was stated earlier, the African is an eternal optimist. Perhaps, this explains why Africans, like some other immigrant groups, will accept any job and be willing to work harder or put in twice the effort of most average Canadians in their workplaces. They will never hesitate to live on budget and subject themselves to below Canadian standard of living in order to save money and carry out major family projects. Most of them accept that nothing is impossible and that if you want something and strive to achieve it, you are bound to be successful. Hence the will in most members of the African community to succeed. The people in the African community, like all other Canadians and Manitobans, want to be treated with equality and respect. They are not asking for any special treatment.

CONCLUSION

It has already been stated, this is a profile of the African community in Manitoba, undertaken in response to the multicultural policy and objectives of the Province of Manitoba outlined in the rationale section of the study.

The issues examined in this study, and the problems that have been unravelled are not unique to the people of the African community. Most, if not all, are applicable to the other immigrant groups with similar experiences. It is not being denied that immigrants must, to a considerable degree, try to adapt to their new society and that the host society needs time to accept their integration into the political and economic institutions and freely participate in the advantages that the society can offer. The point made here is that, for Africans, the adaptation or transition process is very arduous and that acceptance by the white members of the society has been long in coming. This is reflected in the high rate of unemployment in the community, the extreme under-utilization and in some cases, non-utilization of the skills and talents of the people in the African community by both public and private sectors of the economy, encounters with racism and discrimination, especially in the workplace and in political circles, frustrations that emanate from unfulfilled dreams and expectations of getting a good steady permanent job, feeling of alienation and abandonment, and the inability to identify with Canada as a permanent home. The people of the African community do not want differential treatment or undue privileges. Their needs are not different from that of the average Canadian or other immigrant groups. All that they want is equality of opportunity to enable them to contribute to the growth and development of Canada in general, and Manitoba in particular, and to be respected like everybody else in society.

It bothers them that in a country where money is spent in hundreds of millions to provide education and stress the importance of the acquisition of skills and knowledge, educated Africans are unlikely to achieve economic rewards that are commensurate with their qualifications and training.

In spite of the above, many good things are happening in the community. No matter the level at which they are employed, most people work very hard; many have bought their own homes, some have started their own businesses, many in the white community are beginning to show a more positive attitude and understanding of the African community. Qualitatively, if not quantitatively, there is some impact from the African community. There are athletes at both provincial and national levels, in the police force, teachers and professors in the schools and universities, nurses and doctors in Manitoba hospitals, professionals and managers in both public and private sectors of the economy. These developments are having positive and inspirational effects on young people in the African and larger Black community. There are role models for them in every field of human endeavour. With more resources and programs from the institutions of government, economic opportunities for individual and community development, efforts of the people in the community, and support from the society at large, a lot more can be achieved.